Historical Context
In
1603 James the VI of Scotland became King James I of England, essentially
unifying Scotland and England; though parliament would take another century to
complete the process. King James I was
an interesting fellow. Obsessed with
witchcraft he wrote Daemonologie, a
book that would prove instrumental in the later persecution of women in Salem,
Massachusetts and various other localities, and yet he also encouraged the
completion of the King James Translation
of the Bible. Shakespeare is
believed to have held the first performance of Macbeth in 1606 and must have taken the regime change into account
while he wrote the piece.
England
experienced some very violent upheavals during the 15th and 16th
centuries in which rival branches of the royal family fought bitterly over the
succession. The Tudor line came to the
throne through war and they held it through intrigue and quick vengeance
against any who dared aspire to it. James’ mother, Mary, Queen of Scots, was
executed for her attempt to take the English throne from Elizabeth I. Elizabeth I ruled England as a strong and
assertive monarch who defied even the great Spanish Empire, a feat considered remarkable
given that she was a woman.
England’s
troubles were not only political. In the
16th century, Henry VIII, Defender of the Faith, left the Roman
Catholic Church and created the Church of England. He quickly outlawed Catholicism and ordered
the dissolution of the monasteries and other Church lands. Protestant England lasted through the reigns
of Henry VIII and Edward VI and then the reign of Queen Mary almost brought
Catholicism back. James I, the son of a
Catholic, came to the throne as a Protestant and provided a relief to
Protestants throughout the country.
Critical Analysis
Unsurprising,
therefore, is Shakespeare’s exploration of monarchy, magic, religion, and
legitimacy in Macbeth. Shakespeare would not have been able to
ignore the changing political and religious climate nor the powerful
personality of James I. In William
Shakespeare’s Macbeth, Shakespeare
uses juxtaposition to explore political legitimacy.
First,
Macbeth juxtaposes witchcraft against
religion. Throughout the play,
witchcraft plays an important role. The
original title for Macbeth was the Witches, which emphasizes the
importance of the three witches to the plot.
Shakespeare, familiar with King James I Daemonologie, mocks the king’s opus magnum and instead of the
popular tradition that defines witchcraft, Shakespeare’s witchcraft is much
more evil and in direct opposition with the light. Witchcraft in Macbeth takes a very
ritualistic approach with the witches muttering incantations, “double, double,
toil and trouble,” (Shakespeare 51) and playing at prophecy, “when shall we
three meet again / when the hurlyburly’s done / when the battle’s lost and
won.” (Shakespeare 1) These incantations
and prophecies have power and they mirror the power of the priesthoods and
sacraments in religion. Shakespeare is thus able to explore the concept of
legitimacy in religion through the juxtaposition of the witches against popular
religion. In Act IV, Scene V,
Shakespeare employs the darkest scene of the play, the scene known as the
Witches Sabbath, to showcase the witches’ evil.
The very name of the scene shows the juxtaposition of the Sabbath, where
the Lord is worshiped, with the Black Sabbath, where the black arts are
employed to seek dominion and power.
Indeed, the primary juxtaposition, that runs as a theme in the play, is
the evil embodied by witches and witchcraft that Macbeth seeks out in his time
of need. Witchcraft is a sin against God
precisely because it involves seeking answers apart from God and all that God
has to offer. Macbeth is described at
the beginning of the play by Duncan as “worthy” (Shakespeare 11) and he seems
to exude an aura of adroitness; but it is a façade. Macbeth is twisted and he allows the witches
to further taint his soul by believing their prophecy, then acting to ensure
the prophecy, and finally by acting as a witch in their rituals. Shakespeare emphasizes that real witchcraft
is bad because it leads us away from religion and that it has little, if not
nothing, to do with the fanciful descriptions given it by King James. Legitimate religion is not mentioned in the
entire play and we are left to contrast witchcraft with Macbeth’s obviously
Christian culture; implying that there is legitimacy in religion and it cannot
be replicated by men.
Macbeth is juxtaposed against Duncan
several times in the play. At the
beginning, Macbeth is a good and great man in the public eye. Duncan honors him with titles and is full of
his praise, “Give me your hand / conduct me to mine host; we love him highly.”
(Shakespeare 15) Yet we learn that Macbeth
has dabbled in evil before, “Had I so sworn as you have done this.”
(Shakespeare 17) Duncan is shown as a
trusting, goodly man. He is loved by his
people and exemplifies the virtues of kingship.
Conversely, Macbeth, once his treachery is revealed, his name becomes associated
with evil: “the devil himself could not pronounce a title / more hateful to my
ear.” (Shakespeare 79) This contrast is
more apparent as Shakespeare examines the transformation of Inverness during
the play. Inverness starts as a locus
amoenus, “this castle hath a pleasant seat; / the air nimbly and sweetly
recommends itself / unto our gentle senses.” (Shakespeare 14) However, after Macbeth becomes king,
Inverness is no longer a locus amoenus but has transitioned to a place of madness
and chaos that resembles the wicked and hellish nature of the Macbeth’s
soul. This contrast is best exemplified
in Act III, Scene “[speaking about the horses in the stables at Inverness] ‘tis
said they eat each other.” (Shakespeare 30)
Ross goes on to talk about other strange occurrences that he attributes
to Macbeth’s treachery. While Duncan was
king, nature acted as it should but when Macbeth overthrew the rightfully
reigning king the order of nature fell apart.
This juxtaposition demonstrates the lack of legitimacy leads to chaos.
A
final example of juxtaposition that explores the topic of legitimacy, is Lady
Macbeth’s masculinity and Macbeth’s femininity.
At the beginning of the play, Lady Macbeth is powerful. Upon learning of Macbeth’s future, as
described by the witches, Lady Macbeth turns to sorcery and asks “Come, you
spirits / that tend on mortal thoughts unsex me here, / and fill me, from the
crown to the toe top-full / of direst cruelty.”
Lady Macbeth turns to daemonologie and invites the incubus to endow her
with power. This endowment robs her of
the traits of a woman and fills her with the strength and ambition of a
man. Shakespeare is making a statement
with this transformation about the nature of man and woman. In Shakespeare’s day for a woman to dress as
a man was considered a gross misconduct and sometimes even a sin. While Lady Macbeth does not put on men’s
clothing she goes beyond simply dressing the part; she takes on masculine
traits and is dominant. Macbeth, a man
by birth, is weak and floundering. Lady
Macbeth emboldens him through taunting until he transitions, seduced by succubae
to the power of a crooked masculinity, eventually restoring to him his natural
dominance. Shakespeare points out that
legitimate masculinity belongs with the man and that in the hands of a woman
masculinity is dangerous and despicable.
Similarly, in a man, femininity is weak and callous.
Macbeth, Shakespeare’s play examines
legitimacy in religion, government, and sexuality through the use of
juxtaposition. In the play, the audience
is exposed to contrasting opposites that show the peace and glory of
righteousness contrasted with vilest and most abject wickedness. Shakespeare’s reflection on legitimacy is
natural given the time period in which he wrote the play and his genius is not
that he considered what made for legitimacy but the answer he gave.
Personal Response
Due to popular culture, witchcraft
has always held a certain allure.
Stories like Harry Potter and Lord of the Rings glamorize magic and
employ it both in good and evil purposes.
Magic becomes a mere tool that can be used according to the conscience
of the practitioner. However, as one
reads Macbeth, one is exposed to the
vile nature of witchcraft as an alternative to God.
Highlighted in Shakespeare’s Macbeth is the relationship between sex,
violence, and witchcraft. This trifecta
of perverted practices seeks power through the manipulation and promulgation of
evil. Legitimacy is ignored, for
legitimacy implies a right; an absolute truth.
Witchcraft cannot exist in support of legitimacy for witchcraft is
illegitimate—it seeks to replace the real and righteous power of God with the
power of evil. From, the Book of Mormon we learn that
“wickedness never was happiness,” (Book of Mormon, 310) and Shakespeare’s play
arrives at the same conclusion—illegitimacy never was happiness.
True happiness, a veritable locus
amoenus, can only be present where the laws of God are obeyed. This constitutes order and is something
eternal. In Shakespeare’s day Duncan, as
a king, was considered the sovereign chosen by God. Rebellion against the king was blasphemous
because of this concept that the king’s power came from God. While we no longer support the philosophy of
the “Divine Right of Kings” we must see the importance of sustaining legitimate
authority, religion, and sexuality as the alternative is wickedness, chaos, and
madness.
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